Category: wikipedia

The spleen

The spleen (from Greek σπλήν—splḗn[2]) is an organ found in virtually all vertebrates. Similar in structure to a large lymph node, it acts primarily as a blood filter.

It is possible to remove the spleen without jeopardizing life. The spleen plays important roles in regard to red blood cells (also referred to as erythrocytes) and the immune system.[3] It removes old red blood cells and holds a reserve of blood, which can be valuable in case of hemorrhagic shock, and also recycles iron. As a part of the mononuclear phagocyte system, it metabolizeshemoglobin removed from senescent erythrocytes. The globin portion of hemoglobin is degraded to its constitutive amino acids, and the heme portion is metabolized to bilirubin, which is removed in the liver.[4]

The spleen synthesizes antibodies in its white pulp and removes antibody-coated bacteria and antibody-coated blood cells by way of blood and lymph node circulation. A study published in 2009 using mice found that the spleen contains, in its reserve, half of the body’s monocytes within the red pulp.[5] These monocytes, upon moving to injured tissue (such as the heart), turn into dendritic cellsand macrophages while promoting tissue healing.[5][6][7] The spleen is a center of activity of the mononuclear phagocyte system and can be considered analogous to a large lymph node, as its absence causes a predisposition to certain infections.[8]

In humans, the spleen is brownish in color and is located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen.[4][9]

gastrointestinal tract

In zoology, the gut, also known as the alimentary canal or gastrointestinal tract, is a tube by which bilaterian animals (includinghumans) transfer food to the digestion organs.[1] In large bilaterians, the gut generally also has an exit, the anus, by which the animal disposes of solid wastes. Some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means (for example, through the mouth).[2]

Animals that have guts are classified as either protostomes or deuterostomes, as the gut evolved twice, an example of convergent evolution. They are distinguished based on their embryonic development. Protostomes develop their mouths first, while deuterostomes develop their mouths second. Protostome include arthropods, molluscs, and annelids, while deuterostomes include echinoderms andchordates.

The gut contains thousands of different bacteria, but humans can be divided into three main groups based on those most prominent.[3]

For more specific information on digestive organs, see specialized organs and behaviours.

gallbladder

In vertebrates the gallbladder (cholecyst, gall bladder or biliary vesicle) is a small organ where bile is stored, before it is released into the small intestine. Humans can live without a gallbladder. The surgical removal of the gallbladder is called a cholecystectomy.

The main purpose of the gallbladder is to store bile, also called gall. The gallbladder is part of the biliary system and serves as a reservoir for bile, which is produced by the liver. The liver produces the bile and then it flows through the hepatic ducts into the gallbladder. At any one time, 30 to 60 cubic millimetres (0.0010 to 0.0020 US fl oz) of bile is stored within the gallbladder.[13]

When food containing fat enters the digestive tract, it stimulates the secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK) from I cells of the duodenum and jejunum. In response to cholecystokinin, the gallbladder rhythmically contracts and releases its contents into thecommon bile duct, eventually draining into the duodenum. The bile, originally produced in the liver, emulsifies fats in partly digested food, thereby assisting their absorption. Bile consists primarily of water and bile salts, and also acts as a means of eliminating bilirubin, a product of hemoglobin metabolism, from the body.[13]

The bile that is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder is not the same as the bile that is secreted by the gallbladder. During gallbladder storage of bile, it is concentrated by removal of some water and electrolytes. This is through the active transport of sodium ions across the epithelia of the gallbladder, which creates an osmotic pressure that also causes water and other electrolytes such as chlorine to be reabsorbed.[13]

Gallstones are the most common problem to affect the gallbladder.[14] Gallstones generally form because the bile is saturatedwith either cholesterol or bilirubin. Only the minority of gallstones cause symptoms, and the majority of stones are passed along the biliary tree. When symptoms occur, a person may feel severe pain in the upper right part of their abdomen. If the stone blocks the gallbladder, cholecystitis may occur. If the stone lodges in the biliary tree, jaundice may occur; and if the stone blocks the pancreatic duct, then pancreatitis may occur. Gallstones are often managed by waiting for them to be naturally passed. In people with recurrent gallstones, surgery to remove the gallbladder may be considered. Some medication, such as UDCA, andultrasound to break down the stones may also be used.[15]

Inflammation of the gallbladder is known as cholecystitis. Inflammation is most commonly because of obstruction of the duct with gallstones, known as cholelithiasis. Blocked bile accumulates, and pressure on the gallbladder wall may lead to the release of substances that cause inflammation, such as phospholipase. There is also the risk of bacterial infection. An inflamed gallbladder is likely to cause pain and fever, and tenderness in the upper, right corner of the abdomen, and may have a positive Murphy’s sign. Cholecystitis is often managed with rest and antibiotics, particularly cephalosporins and, in severe cases, metronidazole.[15]

Cholecystitis may also occur chronically, particularly when a person is prone to getting gallstones.[15]

dosha

"Ayurveda humors" by Krishnavedala - Own work. Licensed under CC0 via Wikimedia Commons.
“Ayurveda humors” by Krishnavedala – Own work. Licensed under CC0 via Wikimedia Commons.

A dosha (doṣa), according to Ayurveda, is one of three bodily humors that make up one’s constitution. These teachings are also known as the Tridosha theory.

The central concept of Ayurvedic medicine is the theory that health exists when there is a balance between three fundamental bodily humours or doshas called Vata, Pitta and Kapha.

  • Vāta or Vata (wind) is the impulse principle necessary to mobilize the function of the nervous system. It affects the windy humour, flatulence, gout, rheumatism, etc.[1][2]
  • Pitta is the bilious humour, or that secreted between the stomach and bowels and flowing through the liver and permeating spleen, heart, eyes, and skin; its chief quality is heat.[3] It is the energy principle which uses bile to direct digestion and hence metabolism.
  • Kapha is the body fluid principle which relates to mucus, lubrication, and the carrier of nutrients.

All Ayurvedic physicians believe that these ancient ideas, based in the knowledge discovered by the Rishis and Munis, exist in harmony with physical reality. These Ayurvedic concepts allow physicians to examine the homeostasis of the whole system. People may be of a predominant dosha prakruti (constitution), but all doshas have the basic elements within them.

5 types of vata dosha 5 types of pitta dosha 5 types of kapha dosha
  1. Prana Vata – Governs inhalation, perception through the senses and governs the mind. Located in the brain, head, throat, heart and respiratory organs.
  2. Udana Vata – Governs speech, self expression, effort, enthusiasm, strength and vitality. Located in the naval, lungs and throat.
  3. Samana Vata – Governs peristaltic movement of the digestive system. Located in the stomach and small intestines.
  4. Apana Vata – Governs all downward impulses (urination, elimination, menstruation, sexual discharges etc.) Located between the naval and the anus.
  5. Vyana Vata – Governs circulation, heart rhythm, locomotion. Centred in the heart and permeates through the whole body.
  1. Pachaka Pitta – Governs digestion of food which is broken down into nutrients and waste. Located in the lower stomach and small intestine.
  2. Ranjaka Pitta – Governs formation of red blood cells. Gives colour to blood and stools. Located in the liver, gallbladder and spleen.
  3. Alochaka Pitta – Governs visual perception. Located in the eyes.
  4. Sadhaka Pitta – Governs emotions such as contentment, memory, intelligence and digestion of thoughts. Located in the heart.
  5. Bharajaka Pitta – Governs lustre and complexion, temperature and pigmentation of the skin. Located in the skin.
  1. Kledaka Kapha – Governs moistening and liquefying of the food in the initial stages of digestion. Located in the upper part of the stomach.
  2. Avalambhaka Kapha – Governs lubrication of the heart and lungs. Provides strength to the back, chest and heart. Located in the chest, heart and lungs.
  3. Tarpaka Kapha – Governs calmness, happiness and stability. Nourishment of sense and motor organs. Located in the head, sinuses and cerebrospinal fluid.
  4. Bodhaka Kapha – Governs perception of taste, lubricating and moistening of food. Located in the tongue, mouth and throat
  5. Shleshaka Kapha – Governs lubrication of all joints. Located in the joints.

Notes and references

  1. Monier-Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford, 1899
  2. http://www.ayurvedacollege.com/articles/drhalpern/Vata_Doshas Vata Dosha
  3. Monier-Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford, 1899

आयुर्वेद

Ayurveda (Sanskrit Āyurveda आयुर्वेद, “life–knowledge“; English pronunciation /ˌaɪ.ərˈveɪdə/[1]) or Ayurvedic medicine is a system of Hindu traditional medicine of Vedic tradition,[2] is native to the Indian subcontinent, and is a form of alternative medicine. The oldest known Ayurvedic texts are the Suśrutha Saṃhitā and the Charaka Saṃhitā. These Classical Sanskrit texts are among the foundational and formally compiled works of Ayurveda.

Charak

By the medieval period, Ayurvedic practitioners developed a number of medicinal preparations and surgical procedures for the treatment of various ailments.[3] Practices that are derived from Ayurvedic medicine are regarded as part of complementary and alternative medicine,[4] and along with Siddha Medicine and Traditional Chinese medicine, forms the basis for systems medicine.[5]

There is no scientific evidence for the effectiveness of Ayurvedic medicine for the treatment of any disease.[6] Concerns have been raised about Ayurvedic products; for example, peer-reviewed studies have shown that up to 20% of Ayurvedic U.S. and Indian-manufactured patent medicines sold through the internet contained toxic levels of heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic.[7][8]

Much like the medicine of classical antiquity, Ayurveda has historically taken the approach of enumerating bodily substances in the framework of the five classical elements (Sanskrit [maha]panchabhuta, viz. earth, water, fire, air and ether. Moreover, Ayurveda names seven basic tissues (dhatu). They are plasma (rasa), blood (rakta), muscles (māmsa), fat (meda), bone (asthi), marrow (majja), and semen (shukra).[18]

Ayurveda states that a balance of the three elemental substances, the Doshas, equals health, while imbalance equals disease. There are three doshas: Vata, Pitta and Kapha. One Ayurvedic theory states that each human possesses a unique combination of these doshas which define this person’s temperament and characteristics. Each person has a natural state, or natural combination of these three elements, and should seek balance by modulating their behavior or environment. In this way they can increase or decrease the doshas they lack or have an abundance of them respectively. Another view present in the ancient literature states that dosha equality is identical to health, and that persons with imbalance of dosha are proportionately unhealthy, because they are not in their natural state of balance. Prakriti is one of the most important concepts in Ayurveda.

There are three principal early texts on Ayurveda, all dating to the early centuries of the Common Era. These are the Charaka Samhita, the Sushruta Samhita and the medical portions of the Bower Manuscript (also known as the Bheda Samhita). The relative chronology of these texts is not entirely clear. The Charaka Samhita is often cited as primary; although it survived only as a recension dating to the 4th or 5th century, it may be based on an original written between 100 BCE and 100 CE, in which case it would predate the other two texts. The Sushruta Samhita was written in the 3rd or 4th century. The Bower Manuscript is of particular interest because here the manuscript itself is ancient, dated to the early 6th century.[36] The earliest documented mention of the name Sushruta is found in the Bower Manuscript.[37] The medical portions of the Bower Manuscript constitutes a collection of recipes which are connected to numerous ancient authorities, and may be based on an older medical tradition practiced during the Maurya period, antedating both the Charaka and the Sushruta Samhitas.

The Bower Manuscript is also of special interest to historians due to the presence of Indian medicine and its concepts in Central Asian Buddhism. A. F. R. Hoernle in his 1897 edition identified the scribe of the medical portions of the manuscript as a native of India, using a northern variant of the Gupta script, who had migrated and become a Buddhist monk in a monastery in Kucha. The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien (c. 337–422 AD) wrote about the health care system of the Gupta empire (320–550) and described the institutional approach of Indian medicine, also visible in the works of Charaka, who mentions a clinic and how it should be equipped.[38]

Other early texts, sometimes mentioned alongside the Sushruta, Chakaka and Bheda texts, are the Kasyapa and the Harita samhitas, presumably dating to the later Gupta period (ca. 6th century). Ayurvedic authors of the 7th or 8th century include Vagbhata and Madhava.[39]

No significant scientific evidence has shown effectiveness of Ayurvedic medicine for the treatment of any disease, although massage and relaxation are often beneficial and there are indications of health effects from some herbal products used.[6] A systematic review of Ayurveda treatments for rheumatoid arthritis concluded that there was insufficient evidence, as most of the trials were not done properly, and the one high-quality trial showed no benefits.[73] A review of Ayurveda and cardiovascular disease concluded that the evidence for Ayurveda was not convincing, though some herbs seemed promising.[74]

Rasa shastra, the practice of adding metals, minerals or gems to herbs, may include toxic heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic.[8] Adverse reactions to herbs due to their pharmacology are described in traditional Ayurvedic texts, but Ayurvedic practitioners are reluctant to admit that herbs could be toxic and that reliable information on herbal toxicity is not readily available; there is a communication gap between modern medicine practitioners and Ayurvedic practitioners.[76]

According to a 1990 study on Ayurvedic medicines in India, 41% of the products tested contained arsenic, and 64% contained lead and mercury.[48] A 2004 study found toxic levels of heavy metals in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations made in South Asia and sold in the Boston area; it concluded that Ayurvedic products posed serious health risks and should be tested for heavy-metal contamination.[77] A 2008 study of more than 230 products found that approximately 20% of remedies (and 40% of rasa shastra medicines) purchased over the Internet from U.S. and Indian suppliers contained lead, mercury or arsenic.[8][78][79] In 2012 the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) linked Ayurvedic drugs to lead poisoning, based on some cases where toxic materials were found in the blood of pregnant women who had taken Ayurvedic drugs.[80]

Ayurvedic proponents believe that the toxicity of these materials is reduced through purification processes such as samskaras or shodhanas (for metals), similar to the Chinese pao zhi, although the Ayurvedic technique is more complex and may involve prayers as well as physical pharmacy techniques. However, these products have nonetheless caused severe lead poisoning and other toxic effects.[78][81]

Due to these concerns, the government of India ruled that Ayurvedic products must specify their metallic content directly on the labels of the product.[7] But, writing on the subject for Current Science, a publication of the Indian Academy of Sciences, M. S. Valiathan noted that “the absence of post-market surveillance and the paucity of test laboratory facilities [in India] make the quality control of Ayurvedic medicines exceedingly difficult at this time.”[7]

Most Ayurvedic products are labelled either for drug use (not FDA approved) or as dietary supplements. There is an import alert on some medicines issued by the FDA since 2007 which prevents these products entering the United States.[82]

 

The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM)

The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), formerly the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM), is a United States government agency that investigates complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) healing practices in the context of rigorous scientific methodology, in training complementary and alternative medicine researchers, and in disseminating authoritative information to the public and professionals.

The NCCAM is one of the 27 institutes and centers that make up the National Institutes of Health (NIH) within the Department of Health and Human Services of the federal government of the United States. The NIH is one of eight agencies under the Public Health Service (PHS) in the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS).

The forms of medical systems covered include:[4]

External links

 

Phytotherapy

Phytotherapy is the study of the use of extracts of natural origin as medicines or health-promoting agents. Phytotherapy medicines differ from plant-derived medicines in standard pharmacology. Where standard pharmacology isolates an active compound from a given plant, phytotherapy aims to preserve the complexity of substances from a given plant with relatively less processing.

Phytotherapy is distinct from homeopathy and anthroposophic medicine, and avoids mixing plant and synthetic bioactive substances. Traditional phytotherapy is a synonym for herbalism and regarded as alternative medicine by much of Western medicine. Although the medicinal and biological effects of many plant constituents such as alkaloids (morphine, atropine etc.) have been proven through clinical studies, there is debate about the efficacy and the place of phytotherapy in medical therapies.

Many herbs have shown positive results in-vitro, animal model or small-scale clinical tests,[1] while studies on some herbal treatments have found negative results.[2]

In 2002, the U.S. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine of the National Institutes of Health began funding clinical trials into the effectiveness of herbal medicine.[3] In a 2010 survey of 1000 plants, 356 had clinical trials published evaluating their “pharmacological activities and therapeutic applications” while 12% of the plants, although available in the Western market, had “no substantial studies” of their properties.[4]

Even widely used remedies may not have undergone substantial clinical testing. In a review on herbal medicine in Malaria treatment, the authors found that “…better evidence from randomised clinical trials is needed before herbal remedies can be recommended on a large scale. As such trials are expensive and time consuming, it is important to prioritise remedies for clinical investigation….”[5]

Modern phytotherapy, following the scientific method, can be considered the study on the effects and clinical use of herbal medicines.

Pudding

Pudding most often refers to a dessert, but it can also be a savory dish. In the United States, pudding characteristically denotes a sweet milk-based dessert similar in consistency to egg-based custards, though it may also refer to other types such as bread and rice pudding.
In the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries, pudding refers to rich, fairly homogeneous starch- or dairy-based desserts such as rice pudding and Christmas pudding, or, informally, any sweet dish after the main course. The word pudding in this context is also used as a synonym for the dessert course. The word is also used for savory dishes such as Yorkshire pudding, black pudding, suet pudding and steak and kidney pudding.
The word pudding is believed to come from the French boudin, originally from the Latin botellus, meaning “small sausage,” referring to encased meats used in Medieval European puddings.

The ketogenic diet

The ketogenic diet is a high-fat, adequate-protein, low-carbohydrate diet that in medicine is used primarily to treat difficult-to-control (refractory) epilepsy in children. The diet forces the body to burn fats rather than carbohydrates. Normally, the carbohydrates contained in food are converted into glucose, which is then transported around the body and is particularly important in fuelling brain function. However, if there is very little carbohydrate in the diet, the liver converts fat into fatty acids and ketone bodies. The ketone bodies pass into the brain and replace glucose as an energy source. An elevated level of ketone bodies in the blood, a state known as ketosis, leads to a reduction in the frequency of epileptic seizures.[1]

The original therapeutic diet for paediatric epilepsy provides just enough protein for body growth and repair, and sufficient calories[Note 1] to maintain the correct weight for age and height. This classic ketogenic diet contains a 4:1 ratio (although a 3:1 ratio has also been used[2]) by weight of fat to combined protein and carbohydrate. This is achieved by excluding high-carbohydrate foods such as starchy fruits and vegetables, bread, pasta, grains and sugar, while increasing the consumption of foods high in fat such as nuts, cream and butter.[1] Thus, an individual’s diet is composed of 90% and 86% of calories coming from fat, respectively.[2]

Most dietary fat is made of molecules called long-chain triglycerides (LCTs). However, medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs)—made from fatty acids with shorter carbon chains than LCTs—are more ketogenic. A variant of the classic diet known as the MCT ketogenic diet uses a form of coconut oil, which is rich in MCTs, to provide around half the calories. As less overall fat is needed in this variant of the diet, a greater proportion of carbohydrate and protein can be consumed, allowing a greater variety of food choices.[3][4]

In 1921, Rollin Woodyatt reviewed the research on diet and diabetes. He reported that three water-soluble compounds, β-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate and acetone (known collectively as ketone bodies), were produced by the liver in otherwise healthy people when they were starved or if they consumed a very low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet. Russel Wilder, at the Mayo Clinic, built on this research and coined the term ketogenic diet to describe a diet that produced a high level of ketone bodies in the blood (ketonemia) through an excess of fat and lack of carbohydrate. Wilder hoped to obtain the benefits of fasting in a dietary therapy that could be maintained indefinitely. His trial on a few epilepsy patients in 1921 was the first use of the ketogenic diet as a treatment for epilepsy.[14]

Wilder’s colleague, paediatrician Mynie Peterman, later formulated the classic diet, with a ratio of one gram of protein per kilogram of body weight in children, 10–15 g of carbohydrate per day, and the remainder of calories from fat. Peterman’s work in the 1920s established the techniques for induction and maintenance of the diet. Peterman documented positive effects (improved alertness, behaviour and sleep) and adverse effects (nausea and vomiting due to excess ketosis). The diet proved to be very successful in children: Peterman reported in 1925 that 95% of 37 young patients had improved seizure control on the diet and 60% became seizure-free. By 1930, the diet had also been studied in 100 teenagers and adults. Clifford Barborka, also from the Mayo Clinic, reported that 56% of those older patients improved on the diet and 12% became seizure-free. Although the adult results are similar to modern studies of children, they did not compare as well to contemporary studies. Barborka concluded that adults were least likely to benefit from the diet, and the use of the ketogenic diet in adults was not studied again until 1999.[14][18]

the Atkins Nutritional Approach

The Atkins Diet, officially called the Atkins Nutritional Approach, is a low-carbohydrate diet promoted by Robert Atkins from a research paper he read in The Journal of the American Medical Association published by Alfred W. Pennington, titled “Weight Reduction”, published in 1958.[1]

Atkins used the study to resolve his own overweight condition. He later popularized the method in a series of books, starting with Dr. Atkins’ Diet Revolution in 1972. In his second book, Dr. Atkins’ New Diet Revolution (2002), he modified parts of the diet but did not alter the original concepts.

The New Atkins for a New You (2010) is based upon a broad array of information gained over the last decade not covered in previous editions, including nutrient-rich foods. The New Atkins for a New You Cookbook was released in 2011 by Colette Heimowitz to provide dieters with simple, low-carb recipes.

The diet involves limited consumption of carbohydrates to switch the body’s metabolism from metabolizing glucose as energy over to converting stored body fat to energy. This process, called ketosis, begins when insulin levels are low; in normal humans, insulin is lowest when blood glucose levels are low (mostly before eating). Reduced insulin levels induce lipolysis, which consumes fat to produce ketone bodies. On the other hand, caloric carbohydrates (for example, glucose or starch, the latter made of chains of glucose) affect the body by increasing blood sugar after consumption (in the treatment of diabetes, blood sugar levels are used.[2]) Fiber, because of its low digestibility, provides little or no food energy and does not significantly affect glucose and insulin levels.

In his early books such as Dr Atkins’ New Diet Revolution, Atkins made the controversial argument that the low-carbohydrate diet produces ametabolic advantage because “burning fat takes more calories so you expend more calories”.[3] He cited one study where he estimated this advantage to be 950 Calories (4.0 MJ) per day. A review study published in Lancet[4] concluded that there was no such metabolic advantage and dieters were simply eating fewer calories due to boredom. Astrup stated, “The monotony and simplicity of the diet could inhibit appetite and food intake”.

The initial stage of the Atkins Diet is referred to as the induction phase and is considered a ketogenic diet. In ketogenic diets there is production of ketones that contribute to the energy production in the Krebs cycle.[11] Ketogenic diets rely on the insulin response to blood glucose. Insulin is a hormone produced by beta-cells in the pancreas in response to high levels of blood glucose (i.e. after digestion of a carbohydrate meal). The main function of insulin is to shuttle glucose from the blood to peripheral tissues, where they will be needed for fuel or stored as fat. Thus, insulin is a regulator of blood glucose that is too high.

Because ketogenic dieters eat few carbohydrates, there is no glucose that can trigger the insulin response. Therefore, the body must seek an alternate fuel source to fulfill its metabolic needs. During this diet, the main sources of fuel for human cells (glucose) is now at less than adequate supply, cells must take alternate steps to convert stored fuel to glucose. Other than carbohydrate ingestion (which is directly converted into glucose and then immediately available for use as fuel when it enters the blood), the cells must rely on glucose production from conversion of either protein (amino acids) or stored fat.

When blood levels of glucose are low, regulating hormones are released to signal for the need to elevate blood sugar. This is in contrast to the actions of insulin. Since the body is less able to compensate for a state of hypoglycemia, than it is for hyperglycemia, hormones (growth hormone, epinepherine, cortisol, and glucagon) are released causing a cascade resulting in glycogen release from the liver and adipose(fat) cell conversion of triacylglycerol to fatty acids.

Blood glucose levels have to decrease to less than 3.58 mmol/L (64.5 mg/dl) for growth hormone, epinephrine, and glucagon to be released to maintain energy metabolism.[11] In the adipose cells, growth hormone and epinephrine initiate the triacylglycerol to be broken down to fatty acids. These fatty acids go to the liver and muscle where they should be oxidizedand give acetyl-CoA that enters the Krebs cycle directly.[11] However, the excess acetyl-CoA in the liver is converted to ketones (ketone bodies), that are transported to other tissues. In these tissues they are converted back into acetyl-CoA in order to enter the Krebs cycle. Glucagon is produced when blood glucose is too low, and it causes the liver to start breaking glycogen into glucose. Since the dieter does not eat any more carbohydrates, there is no glycogen in the liver to be broken down, so the liver converts fats into free fatty acids and ketone bodies, and this process is called ketosis. Because of this, the body is forced to use fats as a primary fuel source.[11]

The Atkins Nutritional Approach gained widespread popularity in 2003 and 2004. At the height of its popularity one in eleven North American adults was on the diet.[19] This large following was blamed for large declines in the sales of carbohydrate-heavy foods like pasta and rice: sales were down 8.2 and 4.6 percent, respectively, in 2003. The diet’s success was even blamed for a decline in Krispy Kreme sales.[20] Trying to capitalize on the “low-carb craze,” many companies released special product lines that were low in carbohydrates.

In 2003, Atkins died from a fatal head injury due to a fall on ice,[21] and while he had a history of heart disease, Mrs. Atkins was quoted as stating that the circumstances of his death from an epidural hematoma had nothing to do with his diet or history of viral cardiomyopathy.[22][23]

On July 31, 2005, the Atkins Nutritional company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection after the percentage of adults on the diet declined to two percent and sales of Atkins brand product fell steeply in the second half of 2004.[24] The company continues to operate and the diet plan remains popular, although it has not regained its former popularity

External links

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